One of the most prominent trends in the last few years within ministries and commissions dealing with religious endowments and Islamic affairs in the Middle East has been the politicization of religious pulpits and Friday sermons. These pulpits and sermons have turned, in some cases, into reflections of internal political dynamics, and some groups have taken to utilizing these sermons as a means to incite sectarian discord and foster social strife. 

This is not a hard rule; some sermons have been shown to have positive effects, strengthening national unity and confronting terrorist propaganda and corruption. Such effects are assessed based on direct observation or quotes from media sources, as well as accurate scholarly research predicated upon speech analysis.

The Friday sermon in Arab and Islamic countries is often an effective way to spread awareness on everyday issues among the citizenry. In certain cases, much of the content presented has become more political than religious. There are strong indicators that such sermons are taking on a new dimension in the Middle East. These characteristics can be summarized as follows: 

1. Criticizing governments:  Adam Ahmed Youssef, Vice Secretary General of the Ansar Sect, the religious arm of Sudan’s National Umma Party, vehemently criticized the Sudanese government during a Friday sermon held on January 6, 2017. The sermon was held at the al-Ansar mosque, which lies beyond the Sudanese government’s control and is politically aligned with the National Umma Party, a prominent opposition group led by Sadiq al-Mahdi. The imam of the mosque pointed to unreasonable price hikes in vital goods consumed daily by citizens such as bread, sugar, meat, cooking gas and fuel.   

Youssef stated that the government not only raised prices, but also continued to chase away citizens working in public markets, including women and children. He described the Sudanese education system as being amongst the worst in the world, and bemoaned government hospitals being shut down and replaced by private commercial hospitals, rendering government officials as private investors in education and healthcare. Such grievances explain why there was a call for a “revolution of the hungry” in Sudan in the final months of 2016.  

The Sudanese government has been vigilant in confronting criticism of the Bashir regime and attempts to subvert public order. In a televised interview with Al-Arabiya news on June 27, 2015, the head of the Supreme Council of Religious Preaching and Guidance in Khartoum, Badr al-Din Taha discussed imams deemed as “out of control.” He claimed that some had violated social norms and decency in their Friday sermons, and that many of them had been relieved of their duties for inciting social upheaval. He explained that sermons are meant to increase awareness and advise those in authority within the Muslim community. He went on to say that any advice given in these sermons must conform to the framework of the Quran and the Prophetic example.  

There are, in fact, Friday sermons, which support the Sudanese government’s policies. Some of them shed light on the activities of civil society and humanitarian aid groups within Sudanese society, while others focus on Sudan’s internal crises in light of the crises faced by Islamic states in general. The latter topic was featured prominently in the sermon given by the assistant to the official spokesperson of the Sudanese branch of Hizb ut-Tahrir on January 13, 2017. The sermon was entitled, “Why Muslim countries experience crisis in rule.” 

Extremist Mosques

2. The Takeover of extremist imams: In recent years, Tunisia has witnessed an increase in the power of hardline Islamic groups, among them Ansar al-Sharia which has taken over mosques in popular working-class residential areas. These groups are attempting to use force to instate imams who have been removed from their positions in mosques, due to their violation of the rules dictated by the Ministry of Religious Affairs. 

In October 2016, supporters of Imam, Ridha Jaouadi, who had been banned from giving religious sermons in mosques by religious authorities due to organizing syndicate meetings without a legal permit, prevented his government-sanctioned replacement from preaching a Friday sermon in the Sidi Lakhmi mosque in Sfax. Jaouadi is considered an affiliate of the Ennahda movement, and his opinions are known to cause widespread controversy. His supporters gathered in front of the Tunisian General Labor Union, 100 meters away from the Sidi Lakhmi mosque, crying chants against the Minister of Religious Affairs, Othman Battikh. The chants included slogans such as “Battikh…leave”, “the people are Muslim and will not surrender”, “the people want Jaouadi”, and “we give our lives and blood for you Jaouadi”. 

Sectarian Sermons

3. Backing armed militias: In recent months, certain Middle Eastern nations have used Friday sermons as a means to support trans-national parallel armies in the region. Representatives of the Iraqi Shiite scholar Ayatollah Sistani have called for sermons that support the Popular Mobilization Forces in their decisive struggle against ISIS.  This is especially pertinent given the failure of the Iraqi regime’s military and security forces to defend the country adequately. This lack of control will inevitably lead to increased Iranian influence within Iraq. 

In a similar move, the Houthis have also had allies preach Friday sermons in support of their cause in the current conflict in Yemen. In January 2017, a pro-Houthi sermon was delivered at the al-Rahman mosque in the center of the Yemeni city of Al-Hudaydah. Those in attendance left the mosque early in objection to the sermon, which led to their assault by the Houthis. The Houthis have also banned some preachers from delivering sermons in territories under their control. Boycotting Houthi-controlled mosques was thus one of the most effective means of protest against these actions. 

An Absence of Institutional Coordination

4. The conflicting visions of religious institutions: It has become clear that there are contradictions in policy among the different institutions responsible for regulating religious affairs and sermons in some Middle Eastern countries. 

In July 2016, the Egyptian Ministry of Religious Endowments called for imams to be required to read from a prescribed written sermon that deals with a specific subject and is read uniformly by preachers. Mohamed Mokhtar Gomma, the head of the Ministry, stated that such a regulation is borne out of a concern for upholding legitimate national interests. Al-Azhar’s Council of Senior Scholars unanimously rejected the Ministry’s proposal, as the council believed that it violated Article 7 of the Egyptian constitution. The article maintains that Al-Azhar is the main source of religious scholarship and Islamic affairs, and that it alone is responsible for propagating Islam and religious studies.

 In response, the Ministry of Religious Endowments declared that such a decision was under its jurisdiction alone. On July 19, 2016, the Religious Endowments Affairs Committee of the Egyptian House of Representatives issued a statement on the matter. The statement held that the issue of a prescribed written Friday sermon was still being studied and tested in order to assess its positive and negative aspects, and that it would not be imposed for the time being.  

5. Causing controversy over regional relations: Religious rhetoric has not only affected the domestic front, but international relations as well. A telling example was the resignation of the Supreme Judge of Jordan, Ahmed Halil, who heads the judicial entity responsible for supervising sharia-compliant religious courts under the authority of the Prime Minister, on January 20, 2017. Halil was the Minister of Religious Endowments and the official imam of the Hashemite Hadra, an honorary position in the Royal Hashemite Court. Yet he resigned after a Friday sermon he gave in which he asked the Gulf states to provide financial assistance to Jordan, stating that protecting Jordan is a duty incumbent upon Arabs and Muslims, especially in light of the regional threats surrounding Jordan and the crisis caused by Syrian refugees.

Halil stated that he was speaking as, “an imam and scholar of the Muslim Ummah (the communal body of Muslims) to the leaders, Emirs and kings of the Gulf.” He went on to state that, “We appreciate their support for us throughout the days, but I tell them that the situation is now critical, and that their brothers in Jordan are surrounded by intensifying dangers. Your brethren in Jordan are allies and supporters of yours, yet they face severe tribulations, so beware that Jordan may weaken, for the dangers are beyond description”. This was seen by some as an interference in political affairs, and others were severely critical of the sermon. King Abdullah thus agreed to replace Halil as Supreme Judge, appointing Abdul Karim Khasawneh in his place.  

In Tehran, Friday preachers warned Saudi Arabia in 2015 of the consequences of executing Nimr Baqir al-Nimr, in a manner that highlighted Iranian interference in the internal affairs of Saudi Arabia and its judiciary. 

Despite the negative political aspects of the politicization of Friday sermons, there are some positive manifestations of this phenomenon, which can be listed as follows:

1. Supporting national unity: Some Friday sermons seek to bolster a sense of national unity, and to confront social divisions, especially in socially diverse countries. In many Gulf countries, such as Kuwait and Bahrain, these sermons seek to foster unity and confront sectarianism. This has become abundantly clear over the last two years, following ISIS’s June 2015 attacks on the Imam Saqid Mosque in Kuwait. These sermons were also used as a clear attempt to utilize sectarianism to spark Shiite protests in Bahrain. 

On July 2, 2015, Bahraini Minister of Justice, Islamic Affairs and Endowments Khalid bin Ali al-Khalifa stated to the Bahrain News Agency, that unified Friday prayers embody the Islamic and Bahraini spirit of togetherness, which is a model of unity in the face of those conspiring against the Arab and Muslim Worlds. 

The Inclusive Mosque

2. Confronting extremist ideas: Terrorist groups like the ISIS use the pulpits to spread jihadist ideals and recruit fighters. Operating under this assumption, the Jordanian Ministry of Awqaf, Islamic Affairs and Holy Places began operating on an “Inclusive Mosque” initiative in mid-2016. The project aims to attract the largest possible number of worshipers in one place and tailor Friday sermons to confront extremist thought. According to the Minister of Awqaf Dr. Wael Arabiyat the project further aims to provide trained and qualified imams. The rationale behind the initiative was since smaller mosques attract lower numbers of worshipers and have a limited pool of imams on which to draw, they are easy targets for extremist thought. On January 13, 2017, the Friday sermons in Kuwait explored the theme of how Islam is innocent of violent extremism.

In addition to the above, the Algerian Ministry of Religious Affairs issued a statement on March 21, 2016, calling for imams to dedicate a portion of their Friday sermons to informing citizens, without sensationalism, of the dangers surrounding the nation. Imams were instructed to urge citizens to defend national unity, strengthen love for the country in their children’s hearts, protect children from invasive and insidious sectarian ideas, and to call on the citizenry to unite around Algeria’s wise political leadership. 

Bolstering Stability

3. Condemning rioting and vandalism: On January 6, 2017, all of Algeria’s mosques followed instructions issued by the Minister of Religious Affairs, and delivered a unified sermon entitled, “Safety and Stability in Algeria”. The sermon criticized acts of rioting witnessed in several Algerian cities, such as the province of Bejaia a few weeks ago. The sermon emphasized the importance of promoting stability in a chaotic regional context. Imams were instructed to remind their congregations of the dangers of tampering with the nation’s security, and to warn them of any calls to action, which may cause strife.

4. Supporting oppressed peoples: On May 6, 2016, the General Directorate of Religious Endowments in Lebanon called on imams to focus their Friday sermons on the subject of massacres, destruction and forced evictions in Aleppo. In a similar move, on December 10, 2016 the Presidency of Religious Affairs in Turkey called on preachers throughout the country to make Aleppo a main topic of their sermons.

5. Combatting corruption: On December 9, 2016, a unified Friday sermon in Tunisia encouraged citizens to report acts of corruption, stressing the importance of rooting out corruption in Islamic Sharia, on the International Anti-Corruption Day. The civil society organization I WATCH cooperated with the Tunisian Ministry of Religious Affairs to organize anti-corruption sermons across Tunisia on July 15, 2016.

Cyber-Sermons

The reach of Friday sermons has not been limited to the boundaries of the mosque, but has extended finitely through electronic or cyber Friday sermons. After being prevented from preaching in mosques, the Palestinian author, Walid al-Houdali, posted a sermon he was intending to give at a Ramallah mosque on August 27, 2016, on Facebook and Twitter. The sermon was entitled, “His Eminence the Shiekh,” and dealt with the decline in status and influence of mosque preachers.

It must be noted that the religious authorities in Ramallah had suspended al-Houdali citing his violation of the prescribed topic for the sermon. The sermon was supposed to deal with the concept and philosophy of the Islamic Pilgrimage, or Hajj, but instead took a political turn. 

The Palestinian Ministry of Awqaf and Religious Affairs allows qualified preachers to expand on the prescribed topic in their sermons, so long as they stick to the topic at hand. 

Dual Function

In conclusion, for each positive example of Friday sermons in the Middle East, there are an equal number of examples demonstrating the use of the pulpit as a political and sectarian tool. These agendas require re-structuring the apparatus responsible for religious guidance and preaching in the region, as well as choosing sermon topics suited to the needs of society and the changing times. This is a very complicated, and sensitive issue. In the coming years, it must be managed in a serious and tactful way to avoid further breaks within the Muslim community.