The border crossings in armed conflicts in the Middle East usually have several objectives, namely warding off security threats coming across vulnerable borders, enhancing stability in areas of influence divided amidst various parties, as well as increasing revenues generated by the borders-crossing and securing important resources for smuggling networks, establishing what so called ‘shadow economies’. This is in addition to relatively containing the repercussions of COVID-19 after its spread among those working at those crossings, alleviating the humanitarian crises among the residents of flashpoints and using regional and international powers as a bargaining chip in coping with other actors .
The complexed interactions within the region demonstrate the pivotal role played by the crossings either within a state, such as Syria, or between neighboring states, as in the case between Libya and Algeria, Lebanon and Syria, Egypt and the Gaza Strip, Syria and Iraq, Iraq and Turkey or Turkey and Syria, which is reflected in the following concepts:
Flaccid neighborhood
1- Warding off threats coming through weakened borders: Managing entry and exit from the crossings is a necessity for the controlling entity, to secure the state borders. During a conference held with the Libyan Minister of Economy and Trade, on May 29, 2021, Algerian Foreign Minister Sabri Boukadoum announced the launch of logistical and technical arrangements to reopen the joint border crossing with Libya, as it was closed for security reasons following the collapse of the Gaddafi regime. This rendered Algeria the most affected North African country by the smuggling of Libyan weapons and the infiltration of extremist groups, terrorist organizations and criminal gangs, particularly those operating in the drug trade. Concurrently, talks between the two parties were completed to reopen the maritime line linking Tripoli and Algiers to be used in transporting goods and cargo.
On June 10, the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, directed Iraqi Prime Minister Mustafa Al-Kadhimi to control his country’s borders with Syria, to prevent the infiltration of extremist groups and terrorist organizations into Iraq. This is consistent with the prevailing Iraqi intelligence views indicating that the Syrian borders were often the preferred launch point for extremist elements to pervade Iraq since the post-US occupation of the country, asserting that the Syrian government (2005-2007) is behind such infiltration.
Al-Kadhimi's directives to the Iraqi security and border intelligence services coincided with the seventh year of the rise of ISIS and its control over a third of the Iraqi territory. Despite the fall of the organization’s project, the threat of ISIS still exists, evident in the terrorist operations carried out against the army, the security forces and PMU over the past months. This explains the Syrian-Iraqi border security measures of using thermal cameras as well as energy devices and reinforcing the security presence, as stated by Yahya Rasoul, Spokesperson for Joint Operations Command.
Establishing control
2- Enhancing stability in circles of influence: The conditions of the Syrian crossings show the continuous efforts for development by the involved parties in the various stages of the conflict since its onset in 2011 until 2021. This was the case between the regime and armed opposition areas, and then later included the areas of ISIS and the Kurdish YPG as well, which became protected by the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) militia.
It should be noted that the Kurdish Autonomous Administration is always pushing for maintaining the status of a ‘decentralized’ Syrian state, hence the call for the increase of crossings between areas of influence of the Syrian regime and areas of Kurdish control in Northeastern Syria. One of the most prominent crossings linking the Syrian regime and the SDF militia are the ‘Al-Tayha’ crossing (Southwest of Manbij city) and ‘Al-Hawra’ (East of Tabqa city), through which the regime obtains fuel. This reflects the importance of such crossings to the SDF, as they can be utilized as pressure card on the state.
Tolls
3- Increasing the revenue obtained from crossings: The roles of the crossings may be correlated to the access to income for the controlling party rather than just for the sake of security, since crossing fees are collected for individuals, goods, trucks, and cars from both sides. This is evident at the crossings in many Syrian areas. However, some indicate that at the end of last May, the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria has restricted the areas linked to the Syrian regime, due to the escalation of the Russian-Iranian conflict over generating revenues from the crossings.
Shadow economy
4- Securing important resources for smuggling networks: There are many crossings that are being opened or closed for unofficial commercial exchanges according to the demands of the parties controlling them, which can be observed in different Arab states, particularly in Syria. In this respect, some references mention the ‘Awn Dadat’ crossing between the SDF and the armed opposition in Syria, through which fuel, food products, electronics, auto parts, clothes, and other goods of importance to both sides, get transferred.
The impact of COVID-19
5- Relative containment of the repercussions of COVID-19: On May 3, after the decline of COVID infections rate, the Jordanian Ministry of Interior announced the decision to reopen the two border crossings with Saudi Arabia (Al-Omari) and Syria (Al Nasib) to travelers, after nine months of closure due to the COVID-19 pandemic, at a daily rate of 200 people and 1,501 people respectively, according to the approved health conditions.
Gates of Assistance
6- Alleviating humanitarian crises amidst residents of flashpoints: This applies to the Gaza Strip residents. Last May, Egypt opened the Rafah crossing to bring in food and medical aid and to treat wounded Palestinians, following the clashes between Israel and the Palestinian factions in May. Relevantly, on June 4, Linda Thomas-Greenfield, the US Ambassador to the UN, said that the closure of the Bab al-Hawa border crossing could cause ‘senseless cruelty’ to millions of Syrians, renewing a call for the U.N. Security Council to extend authorization for the delivery of cross-border humanitarian assistance.
It should be noted that the US is seeking to restore UN access to Bab al-Hawa and to reopen other border crossings before the expiration of the current mandate of the UN Security Council to deliver humanitarian aid on July 10. Linda Thomas-Greenfield said, “We call on the rest of the Security Council to renew this mandate so that we can stop the suffering and help those in desperate need… We want the U.N. to bring food to starving children and protection to homeless families… We want the U.N. to be able to deliver vaccines in the middle of a global pandemic". Then, Thomas-Greenfield announced that nearly $240 million additional U.S. humanitarian funding will be provided through the U.S. Agency for International Development to support Syrians and countries hosting Syrian refugees.
International Trade-offs
7- The regional and international powers’ use of the crossings card in bargaining with other parties: Syria, with its border crossings and inland corridors, was on the agenda of the meetings that included Presidents Joe Biden, Vladimir Putin and Recep Tayyip Erdogan in Brussels and Geneva on June 14 and 16. The issue may seem ostensibly related to the need to provide relief to the Syrian people, especially with the imminent expiration of the mandate to deliver aid across the borders on July 10. Yet, the crossings file reflects a geopolitical conflict between Washington, Moscow and Ankara.
While the Biden administration is focusing on enhancing the entry of humanitarian aid into Syria, with a decline in its interest in the political and military files, Moscow is attempting to link the issue of the border crossings and the corridors linking the three areas of influence within Syria to pose pressure on the opponents by opening the so-called ‘Syria's economic arteries’ and to reduce pressures imposed by some capitals which condition opening Damascus up and its reconstruction to the progress in the political process.
The past few weeks have witnessed the Biden administration posing pressure on Moscow to continue bringing aid into Northern Syria and opening more outlets for the same purpose. This may explain Thomas-Greenfield's visit to Turkey and the camp areas on the Syrian border, which coincides with the Autonomous Administration’s demand for Paris to increase humanitarian support for refugees in Northeastern Syria, particularly in the health and education sectors.
A reflective mirror
In conclusion, the complexities of border crossings, especially in the hotbeds of armed conflicts in the Middle East, are a mirror of what is happening in the region. The so called ‘crossing economies’ revenues are depended on by different parties, whether regular armies, armed militias or extremist groups, as well as international powers and often regional parties. They are also used as bargaining chips in political and security issues. The crossings also remain of core importance in addressing threats posed by terrorists coming across the weakened borders from neighboring countries, in addition to the maneuvering of the crossings in bringing humanitarian aid to the groups that are desperate for it.
